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Ijtihad dan Peranannya dalam Pengharmonian Pengamalan Undang-Undang Syariah di Dunia Islam Masa Kini

Abdullah Alwi Haji Hassan, (2007) Ijtihad dan Peranannya dalam Pengharmonian Pengamalan Undang-Undang Syariah di Dunia Islam Masa Kini. Jurnal Syariah, 15 (2). pp. 1-24. ISSN 0128 - 6730

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Affiliations

International Islamic University Malaysia. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization

Abstract

Since the nineteenth century, most Muslim countries had endeavoured to reestablish and reorganize the practice of Shariah Law. In order to reinstitutionalize the practice of this law, they have to reopen the Gate of ijtihad (the use of individual reasoning)􀂴 which is believed to be closed
in the Third Century of the Hijrah (or in the Ninth Century of the Christian Era). In order to revive the practice of ijtihad, they have adopted various legal mechanisms to solve numerous problems and adapt the law to the new and different conditions and situations. Those mechanisms are altakhayyur (the eclectic expedient) and al-talfiq (combining the doctrines of more than one school) which have become two eclectic devices. In addition, other mechanisms such as the doctrine of Siyasah Shari􀂵iyyah (the policy of administrative justice within the limits assigned to it by the Syariah), maslahah (public interest) and others have been used. One of new approaches in applying those mechanisms, is the introduction of various statutory legislations which has been promulgated by the national legislature, either by parliament or state legilative assembly. The state purpose of this stalutory legislation is to implement the Law efficiently and as well as to harmonise administratively between the national legal system, that was introduced by the former colonial power and the Shariah Law. For Muslim countries this method of legislation is considered permissible as long as it does not contradict with the principle of Islamic jurisprudence even though as if it has moved towards the introduction of Islamic statutory law rather than they just adhere to the jurists􀂶 law, as it occurred in the early development of the Shari􀂵ah Law. However, this tends to become more nationalistic in nature, which is against the universality of Shari􀂵ah Law. Therefore such element of nationalistic inclination should be removed in order to upgrade it to a global legal system, apart from safeguarding the national aspects of each locality that implements the law.

Item Type:Journal
Keywords:Syariah laws, Islamic laws
Subjects:B Philosophy. Psychology. Religion
ID Code:5886

1 Lihat Ahmad Hasan (1982), The Early Development of Islamic Jurisprudence. Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, hh. 33-59.

2 Lihat Muhammad Ibn Idris al-Shafii (t.t.) t.p. al-Risalah. Qaherah: t.p., hh. 21-105, 471-486 dan 598-600; Lihat perbincangan mengenai al-Shafi dalam Abdullah Alwi Haji Hassan (1991), Al-Syafii: Sejarah Hidup Dan Metodologi Mazhab Fiqhnya, dalam ISLAMIKA IV, hh. 62-85

3 Ibn al-Muqaffa􀂵 (1913), Risalat Ibn al-Muqaffa􀂵 Fi al-Sahabah. Risalah ini dimasukkan di dalam

Kitab Rasail al-Bulaqha􀂶 oleh Kurd 􀂵Ali (1913), Muhammad Kurd 􀂵Ali (ed.). Qaherah, h. 120-131. Lihat juga Ibn al-Muqaffa􀂵 (1966), Athar Ibn al-Muqaffa􀂵. Beirut: t.p, h. 345-361.

4 J. Schacht (1964), An Introduction to Islamic Law. London: Oxford University Press, hh. 55-56;dan N.J. Coulson (1964), A History of Islamic Law. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, h. 52.

5 Lihat perbincangannya dalam J. Schacht, op. cit., h. 69; Y. Meron (1969), The Development of Legal Thought in Hanafi Texts􀂴, Studia Islamica 30, hh. 73-118; dan W. B. Hallaq (1984), Wasthe Gate of Ijtihad Closed?􀂴, International Journal of Middle East Studies 16, hh. 3-41.

6 Ahmad Ibrahim (1965), Islamic Law In Malaya. Singapore: Malaysian Sociological Research Institutue Ltd., hh. 88-89.

7 J. Schacht, op. cit., h. 71; dan N.J. Coulson, op. cit., h. 81.

8 M.K. Masud, B. Messich, D.S. Powers (eds.) (1996), Islamic Legal Interpretation Muftis and Their Fatwas. Cambridge/Mass And London: Harvard University Press.

9 Lihat antaranya Akta Pentadbiran Undang-undang Islam (Wilayah-Wilayah Persekutuan) 1993 (Akta 505), (S. 3413).

10 W.B. Hallaq (2001), Authority, Continuity and Change in Islamic Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

11 Ahmad Hassan, op. cit., hh. 12-32.

12 J. Schacht (1997), op. cit., h. 15; Lihat perbincangan lanjut berhubung dengan al-Siyasah al-Shariiyyah oleh F.E. Vogel dalam rencananya 􀂳Siyasa 3. In The Sense of Siyasa Shar􀂶iyyah􀂴. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Ed., IX, hh. 694-696.

13 Kemal A. Faruki (1391/1971), The Evolution of Islamic Constitutional Theory and Practice. Karachi Dacca: National Publishing House Ltd., hh. 79-80; dan lihat juga 􀂵Abd al-Karim Zaydan (1396/1976), al-Madkhal Li Dirasat al-Shari􀂵ah al-Islamiyyah. Baghdad: Mu􀂶assasat al-Risalah-Maktabat al-Quds, hh. 152-154.

14 Sistem ini mula diadaptasikan dari sistem parlimen Barat di Turki pada tahun 1920-an, Lihat Kemal A. Faruki, op. cit., h. 206.

15 Dalam kes Malaysia, undang-undang pentadbiran Islam digubal oleh Badan Perundangan Negeri, yang dikenali dengan Dewan Undangan negeri (DUN) melainkan untuk Wilayah-wilayah Persekutuan yang mana undang-undangnya digubal oleh parlimen Persekutuan, sebagaimana yang diperuntukkan oleh Jadual Kesembilan, Senarai 2 Senarai Negeri-Negeri Perlembagaan, Persekutuan. Walau bagaimanapun, untuk bidangkuasa jenayah Mahkamah Syari􀂶ah telah dihad oleh Parlimen melalui Mahkamah Syariah bidangkuasa Jenayah), 1965 (Bil. 23 Tahun 1965)dan telah dipinda pada tahun tahun 1984 oleh Akta Mahkamah Syariah (Bidangkuasa Jenayah)(Pindaan), 1984 (Bil. A612 Tahun 1984).

16 Kemal A. Faruki, op. cit., hh. 157-170.

17 A. Layish and R. Shaham (1999), Tashri. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Ed., X, hh. 353-354.

18 Ahmad Ibrahim, op. cit., hh. 103-104.

19 N. J. Coulson, op. cit., hh. 182-217.

20 A. Layish and R. Shaham (1995), Nikah II; in the Modern Islamic World 1, The Arab, Arabs, Persian and Turkish Lands of the Middle East, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New ed., VIII, hh. 29-32; A Layish (1998) Talaq II. Reform in the Modern Middle East and North Africa, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New ed., IX, hh. 155-157; dan Idem (2000), Wakaf, Section 5: In the Modern Middle East and North Africa, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New ed., Vol. XI, hh. 78-81.

21 N. Anderson (1976), Law Reform in the Muslim World. London: University of London (The Athlone Press), hh. 86-100; E. Hill, Al-Sanhuri and Islamic Law, Arab Law Quarterly 3 (1988), hh. 33-64, 182-218.

22 Untuk keterangan lanjut berhubung al-talfiq, Lihat Wahbah al-Zuhayli (1406/1986), Usul al-Fiqh al-Islami, II. Damsyik: Dar al-Fikr, hh. 1142-1155.

23 Abdul Majeed Mohamed Mackeen (1969), Contemporary Islamic Legal Organisation in Malaya, Connecticut: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, h. 38. Doktrin ini mula diperkenalkan oleh Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah. Lihat kitabnya (1380/1961) al-Turuq al-Hukmiyyah fi al-Siyasah al-

Shariyyah, Qaherah: t.p.

24 Lihat Wahbah al-Zuhayli, op. cit., II, hh. 1017-1035. Pembahagian doktrin al-masalih kepada tiga tahap, iaitu al-darurat, al-hajat dan al-tahsinat telah diperkenalkan oleh Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (m. 505 H./1111 M.). Lihat kitabnya al-Mustasfa min Ilm al-Usul, Qaherah: Al-Maktabah al-Kubra, I, hh. 139-144.

25 N. Anderson, op. cit., hh. 42-48; dan N. J. Coulson, op. cit., hh. 182-217.

26 Kemal A. Faruki, op. cit., h. 227.

27 A. Layish (1987), 􀂳Saudi Arabian Legal Reform as a Mechanism to Moderate Wahhabi Doctrine. Journal of the American Oriental Society 107, h. 280.

28 Lihat A. Layish (1987), Transformation of The Shari􀂵a From Jurists􀂶 Law to Statutory Law in the Contemporary Muslim World􀂴. Die Welt des Islam 44, 1. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, h. 92.

29 Lihat Abdullah @ Alwi bin Haji Hassan (2003), Pengajian dan Pengamalan Undang-Undang Islam Di Malaysia: Antara Tradisi Dan Moderniti􀂴, Syarahan Perdana. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Penerbitan, University Malaya, hh. 15-29.

30 J. Schacht, op. cit., hh. 95-96.

31 Lihat Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim & Ahilemah Joned (1986), Sistem Undang-Undang Di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, hh. 52-65.

32 Di Wilayah-wilayah Persekutuan di Malaysia, umur lelaki 18 tahun dan umur perempuan ialah 16 tahun sahaja layak berkahwin, melainkan dengan kebenaran qadi untuk berkahwin bagi mereka berumur kurang dari itu. Lihat Akta Undang-Undang Keluarga Islam (Wilayah Persekutuan) 1984 (Akta 303), Seksyen 8.

33 Lihat Akta Undang-Undang Keluarga Islam (Wilayah Persekutuan), 1984 (Akta 303), Seksyen 23.

34 Lihat kes Dato􀂶 Haji Nik Mahmud bin Daud lwn Bank Islam Malaysia Bhd. dalam 1996 1CLJ576.

35 Sehingga kini tiada lagi Mahkamah Perdagangan Syariah yang khusus ditubuhkan. Lihat Abdullah Alwi bin Haji Hassan, op. cit., hh. 33-36.

36 Lihat M. H. Kerr (1966), Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida. Berkeley & Los Angeles: t.p.

37 Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim (2000), The Administration of Islamic Law In Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Islamic Understanding Malaysia, hh. 57-59.

38 E. Naveh (2002), Application of the Shari􀂵a in civil Courts in the Twentieth Century: A comparative Study Based on Decisions of Civil Courts in Matter of Personel Status and Waqf of Muslims in a Muslim State (Egypt) and in a Non-Muslim State (Israel). Thesis, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem; dan idem, (2002) The Tort of Injury and the Dissolution of Marriage at the Wifes initiative in Egyptian Mahkamat al- Naqd, Islamic Law and Society 9, hh. 16-41.

39 N. J. Coulson, op. cit., h. 209; A. Layish (1998), 􀂳Talaq, II. Reforms in the Modern Middle East and North Africa, 􀂳 The Encyclopaedia of Islam􀂴, New ed., IX, hh. 156-157.

40 Wahbah al-Zuhayli, op. cit., II, hh. 799-827.

41 A. Layish, 􀂳The Transformation􀂴, op. cit., h. 93.

42 W. B. Hallaq (1994), Comments for the Panel: The Transformation of Islamic Law From Jurists to Statute Law and Its Repercussions, The Joseph Schacht Conference on Theory and Practice in Islamic Law, Leiden & Amsterdam, 1994 (7); idem (1997), A History of Islamic Legal Theories,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, hh. 214. 1997, h. 214; dan N. J. Coulson, op. cit., hh.203-207.

43 Pendapat ini telah dipegang oleh al-Tufi dari Mazhab Hanbali. Lihat Wahbah al-Zuhayli, op. cit.,hh. 817-887.

44 Al-Sayyid al-Sabiq (1391/1971), Fiqh al-Sunnah, III. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-􀂵Arabi 1971/1391,hh. 531-532.

45 N. Anderson, op. cit., h. 58; dan B. Krawietz (2002), 􀂳Cut and Paste in Legal Rules: Designing Islamic Norms with Talfiq􀂴, die Welt des Islams I 42, 1. hh. 2-40.

46 Lihat N. Anderson & N. J. Coulson (1967), Islamic Law in Contemporary Cultural Change. Munchen: t.p.

47 Lihat takrif 􀂳Hukum Syara􀂴 di dalam Akta Undang-Undang Keluarga Islam (Wilayah Persekutuan),1984 (Akta 303), Seksyen 2.

48 Ibid., Seksyen 23.

49 Ibid., Seksyen 4

50 A Layish, 􀂳The Transormation􀂴, op. cit., h. 95.

51 Akta Undang-Undang Keluarga Islam (Wilayah Persekutuan), 1984, (Akta 303), Seksyen 23 (4).

52 Ibid., Seksyen 47.

53 Lihat A Layish (2002), 􀂳The Qadis Role in the Islamization of Ledentary Tribat Society, In M.Hoextens, S. N. Eissenstadt and N. Levtzion (eds.), The Public Sphere in Muslim Societies. New York: t.p., h. 93.

54 Lihat M. B. Hooker (1976), The Personal Laws of Malaysia 􀂱 An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, h. 19; dan Mosye Yegar, Islam And Islamic Institutions In British Malaya. Jarusalem: Oxford University Press The Hebrew University (The Magnes Press), h. 144 passim; pengkodifikasian menurut sistem perundangan Barat ini juga berlaku di Brunei, Singapura, Filipina dan Indonesia. Lihat M. B. Hooker (1984), Islamic Law in South-East Asia. Singapore, hh. 173,221-278.

55 A. E. Mayer (1994), 􀂳Outling Comments for Panel: The Transformation of Islamic Law from Jurists to Statute Law and Its Repercussions, The Joseph Schacht Conference on Theory and Practice in Islamic Law. Leiden & Amsterdam: t.p.

56 A Layish (1993) memetik hujah ini dalam B. Botiveau, Loi Islamique Et Droit Dans Les Societes Arabes. Mutations Des Systems Juridiques Du Moyen-Orient. Paris: t.p. Lihat juga A Layish, The Transformation, op. cit., h. 96.

57 J. N. D. Anderson (1975), Islamic Law in the Modern World. New York: t.p., hh. 17-37.

58 Di Malaysia, Fasal 4 jelas meletakkan Perlembagaan sebagai undang-undang utama Persekutuan dan bidang kuasa undang-undang Syariah tertakluk kepada Jadual Kesembilan, Senarai 2 Senarai Negeri. Lihat perbincangannya dalam L. A. Sheridan & Harry Groves (1967), The Constitution of Malaysia. New York: Oceana Publications, Inc., h. 28, dan lihat perbincangan lanjut mengenai kedudukan Islam dalam Perlembagaan Malaysia dalam Ahmad Ibrahim, 􀂳The Position of Islam In The Constitution of Malaysia􀂴, dalam Tun Mohamed Suffian, H. P. Lee & F. A. Trindade (eds.),The Constitution of Malaysia: Its Development: 1957-1977. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, hh. 41-68; dan Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim, The Administration of Islamic Law In Malaysia, op. cit., hh. 37-59.

59 Suwaid Tapah (2004), 􀂳Perundangan Dan Penguatkuasaan Fatwa􀂴 dalam Ahmad Hidayat Buang (ed.), Fatwa Di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Syariah dan Undang-undang, Akademi Pengajian Islam, University Malaya, hh. 97-41; dan Ahmad Hidayat Buang (2004), 􀂳Penyediaan Dan Pengeluaran Fatwa􀂴, dalam Ahmad Hidayat Buang (ed.), Fatwa Di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Syariah dan Undang-undang, hh. 97-116.

60 Lihat Patricia Crone (1987), Provincial and Islamic Law. The Origins of the Islamic Patronate.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

61 Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (m. 1505 M.), Al-Ashbah wa al-Naza􀂶ir. Qaherah: t.p., hh. 102-109; dan Abdur Rahim (1911), Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Lahore: All Pakistan Legal Decisions, hh. 55 dan 136.

62 J. Schacht (1955), 􀂳Pre-Islamic Background and Early Development of Jurisprudence􀂴 dalam Majid Khadduri (ed.), Law in the Middle East. Washington D.C.: Middle East Institutes, h. 35f.

63 Ahmad Ibrahim (1979), 􀂳The Position of Islam in the Constitution of Malaysia􀂴, dalam Tun Mohamed Suffian, H. P. Lee & F. A. Trindade (eds.), op. cit, h. 59; dan A. Layish, The Transformation, op. cit., h. 97.

64 A. Layish, 􀂳The Transformation􀂴, op. cit., hh. 97-98. Lihat juga Fasal 4 (1), Perlembagaan Malaysia.

65 (1992), 2 M. L. J. 793.

66 (1995), 1 C.L.J. 1xxxi

67 K. Balz (1999), 􀂳The Secular Reconstruction of Islamic Law: The Islamic Supreme Constitutional Court and the 􀂵Battle over the Veil􀂶 in State Run Schools􀂴. In B. Duret, M. Berger and L. Zuwaini (eds.), Legal Pluralism in the Arab World. The Hague, London & Boston: t.p., hh. 231-233.

68 Lihat C.B. Lombardi (1988), Islamic Law as a Source of Contitutional Law in Egypt: The Constitutionalization of the Sharia in a Modern Arab State, Columbia Journal of Transanational Law 37. hh. 118-119; A. Layish and G. R. Warfurg (2002), The Reinstatement of Islamic Law in Sudan under Numayri. An Evaluation of a Legal Experiment in the Light of Its Historical Contetxs Methodology and Repercussions. Leiden; Lazac, h. 263.

69 Ibid., hh. 174-180, 267, 276-277.

70 Lihat Tahir Mahmood (1972), Family Law Reform In the Muslim World. New Delhi: The Indian Law Institution, hh. 316-317; dan Syed Agil Barakbah (1996), Kedudukan dan Perlaksanaan Undang-Undang Jenayah di Pakistan􀂴, dalam Institut Kefahaman Islam Malaysia (IKIM) (1996), Tinjauan Kepada Perundangan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Institut Kefahaman Islam Malaysia (IKIM), hh. 316-443.

71 Sufya Sufurat (1988), Islamic Law in The Sudan􀂴, dalamIslamic Law: Social & Historical Contexts. London: t.p., hh. 240-241.

72 Lihat B. Babaji Esq (2003), 􀂳Assessing the Performance of the Lower courts in the Implementation of Shariah Penal Law in Northern Nigeria􀂴, (Kertas Kerja Conference for Women􀂶s Rights and Access to Justice Under Sharia in Northern Nigeria, pada 26-28 Februari 2003), dan Ahmad Ibrahim Ahmad Aliyn (2000), 􀂳The Role of Zaufara State House of Assembly as Circumscribed by the 1999 Constitution and the Council of Ulama, (Kertas Kerja the 2nd Conference Centre for Islamic Legal Studies, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria pada 24-25 November 2000).

73 J. N. D. Anderson, op. cit., hh. 81-100; R. Peters (1988), Divine Law or Man Made Law? Egypt and the Application of the Sharia. Arab Law Quarterly. hh. 231-253; idem. (1994), 􀂳The Islamization of Criminal Law: A Comparative Analysis, Die Nelt des Islamis 34, hh. 246-274 dan R. Mehdi (1994), The Islamization of the Law in Pakistan. Survey; A. Layish and G. R. Warburg, op. cit., hh.

94-98, dan 275.

74 A. Layish and G. R. Warburg, op. cit., hh. 243-248 dan 292.

75 Akta Undang-undang Keluarga Islam (Wilayah Persekutuan) 1984 (Akta 303), S. 2; dan Ahmad Ibrahim dalam Tun Mohamed Suffian, H.P. Lee & F.A. Trmdack (eds.), op. cit., h. 59.

76 A. Layish and G. R. Warburg, op. cit., hh. 243-248 dan 292.

77 Lihat A. Layish (2003), 􀂳Reformist Matrimonial Legislation and the Collapse of the Muslim Patrilineal Family, Awraq. hh. 57-80; dan A. Moors (2003), Theme Issue: Public Debates on Family Law Reform: Participants, Positions and Styles of Administration in the 1990s, in A. Moors (Guested.), Islamic Law and Society, 10, no. 1.

78 Ahmad bin Mohd. Ibrahim (1970), Towards A History of Law In Malaysian And Singapore (Inaugural Braddell, Memorial Lecture). Singapore: Stamford College Press (p) Ltd., hh. 36-37.

79 Ibid., h. 71.

80 Perkara 3 (1), dan Jadual Ke Sembilan, Senarai Negeri II.

81 Kemal A. Faruki, op. cit., h. 200.

82 A. Layish, The Transformation, op. cit., h. 101.

83 R. Sham (1997), Family and the Courts in Modern Egypt. A Study Based on Decisions by The Sharia Courts, 1900-1955. Leiden: Luzac, hh. 230-235.

84 N. Brown, (1997), 􀂳Shari􀂵a and State in the Modern Muslim Middle East􀂴. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 29, h. 372.

85 Lihat W. B. Hallaq (1997), A History of Islamic Legal Theories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lihat juga R. Peters, Ijtihad and Taqlid in 18th and 19th Century Islam, Die Welt des Islams 30, hh. 131-145.

86 R. Shaham (1999), An Egyption Judge in a Period of Change: Qadi Ahmad Muhammad Shakir (1892-1958), Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119, hh. 440-455.

87 A. Layish and G. R. Warturg, op. cit., hh. 79-94.

88 C. B. Lombardi (1998), Islamic Law as a Source of Constitutional Law in Egypt: The Constitution of the Sharia in a Modern Arab State, Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 37, hh. 81-123; dan A. Layish and G. R. Marburg, op. cit., hh. 124, 169-170.

89 Penerapan dan pengasimilasian elemen-elemen perundangan asing ke dalam sistem perundangan Syariah telah berjaya dilakukan pada peringkat period formatif pada zaman awal Islam, sama ada dalam bidang pengkoseptualisasi undang-undang, penginstitusian dan pengamalan pentadbirannya. Lihat J. Schacht, Introduction, op. cit., h. 19; dan N. J. Coulson, History of Islamic Law, op. cit., h.27.

90 Lihat Jabatan Kehakiman Syariah Malaysia (JKSM), Laporan Tahunan 2001, h. 22.

91 Yusuf al-Qardawi, (2000/1421) Fi fiqh al-Awlawiyyat: Dirasah Jadidah Fi Daw􀂶 al-Qur􀂶an wa al-Sunnah. Qaherah: Maktabat Wahbah, h. 25.

92 Ibid., hh. 191-196.

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